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Emperor Napoleon
The Battle of Trafalgar, while a major turning point in the fortunes of Britain, was just one episode in the dramatic and eventful life of the French leader, Napoleon Bonaparte. Much has been written about Napoleon, particularly concerning the character of the man. Was he a military genius or just lucky? Was he a great politician or a dominating personality? Or was he all of these things and more? It is the impact he had on Europe for decades that cannot be doubted. Napoleon was born Napoleone Buonaparte in Ajaccio, Corsica, on 15 August 15 1769, to a wealthy Corsican family. Through his own ability, his father's social climbing and his mother's adultery Napoleon entered the Brienne military academy in 1779, moving to the Parisian ?cole Royale Militaire in 1784. He graduated just a year later as a second lieutenant in the French Artillery. Napoleon spent much of the next eight years in Corsica, where he played an active part in political and army life. Military promotion followed, but civil war in 1793 prompted the Buonapartes to flee to France, where they adopted the French version of their name. The French Revolution had left gaps in the republic's officer ranks, presenting opportunities to ambitious individuals. Napoleon's fortunes rose and fell and rose again in this climate. By December 1793 Bonaparte had led the French forces at Toulon, returned home a hero and been promoted to brigadier general. However he was arrested shortly afterwards on suspicion of treason, only to be subsequently released. Napoleon was hailed a hero again in 1795, after protecting the government from counter-revolutionary forces. His subsequent promotion gave him access to French political life. Bonaparte's opinionated stance quickly led to him becoming one of the country's most respected military minds. Around this time he fell in love with and married the widow Rose de Beauharnais, whom he called Josephine. In 1796 France attacked Austria, and Napoleon was given command of the Army of Italy. He successfully turned an inexperienced, unhappy army into an almost unbeatable unit, and in turn gained legendary status. He returned to France in 1797 a national hero.
May 1798 saw Napoleon embark on another campaign, this time in Egypt and Syria. The push was prompted by British successes in India, Napoleon's own ambition and the French government's fear that Napoleon might soon be in a position to seize power from the ruling party. Egypt was a military failure, and a change in government in France caused Bonaparte to abandon his army and flee back to Paris. Shortly after he took part in a coup that led to him becoming one of the three men ruling France. This was a traumatic period for France, but Napoleon's political skill carried him through. By February 1800 he was First Consul, and practically a dictator. France was still at war with large parts of Europe, and Napoleon set about conquest. This was achieved within the year and peace treaties were signed with most of Europe. Then Napoleon set about reforming France herself - looking at the legal system and economy and introducing the Code Napoleon which focused on education, government, the church and the military. His skills as a negotiator, propagandist and politician were as formidable as his military talents, although he made some major and far-reaching mistakes. However, Napoleon remained such a popular figure in France that he was elected Consulate for life in 1802 and Emperor of France in 1804. However, Napoleon could not be still and peace could not last. Other countries also pushed for war, fearing and distrusting Napoleon and his republic. War ensued and continued for eight years. Alliances involving Britain, Prussia, Russia and Austria were defeated by the French army. New European states were created and Napoleon installed his family and friends in positions of power. A mixture of skill and luck on the battlefield ensured France remained Europe's premier power. However, there were also setbacks, the main being Britain and her naval strength. The Battle of Trafalgar in 1805 effectively put an end to Bonaparte's hopes of invading Britain. French attempts to impose economic sanctions on Britain simply succeeded in harming France herself. Napoleon's attempt to put his brother, Joseph, on the Spanish throne was even more damaging, and resulted in a guerrilla war. This was typical of Napoleon's problem throughout his reign - he and his troops could not be everywhere in Europe at once. The Peninsular Wars further highlighted this problem. Britain had made up ground in Portugal and drew even more of France's resources away from the homeland.
Despite these problems the period up to 1811 was highly successful for Napoleon, and was capped by the birth of his only legitimate child - Napoleon II - by his second wife, Marie-Louise.
After this period fortune began to turn against France. Spain and Britain were still proving problematic and Napoleon's popularity waned at home. However, it was his ill-fated march on Russia in 1812 that proved his undoing. An army of more than 400,000 men, with a similar number of followers was assembled. An army this size proved almost impossible to direct or feed. The Russians retreated closer to Moscow, destroying food and shelter as they went and drawing Napoleon's forces reluctantly onwards. Following the bloody Battle of Borodino, in which 80,000 men died, French forces reached Moscow, only for the Russians to torch the city to prevent its capture. So began the French soldiers' long walk back to safety. By the end of 1812 just 10,000 soldiers remained alive, the rest killed by freezing temperatures, Russian attacks and starvation. France had few soldiers, horses or allies left. At home the situation was also dire, with plots to oust the emperor. France's enemies, including Austria, Russia and Prussia, allied against her, with huge armies marching on French territory. Somehow Napoleon raised a fresh army but they were desperately stretched over several advancing fronts. For two years Napoleon withstood internal and external attacks, compounded by the British fighting through Spain and into France, but he remained buoyed by his own military enterprise. However this could not last and on 30 March 1814, Paris surrendered. Napoleon elected to cut his loses, quickly abdicating and going into exile on the isle of Elba.
France remained unsettled and it was this instability that gave Bonaparte his opportunity to return to power in 1815. By travelling through the country he managed to raise massive support and soon retook the throne. The Allies were outraged and quickly engaged the French army. Several skirmishes later Bonaparte was narrowly defeated at the Battle of Waterloo, just 100 days after retaking power. He was forced into his second period of exile, this time on the remote island of St Helena, where after six years of wavering health Napoleon died, aged 51. In this section |
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